The Knowledge of the theoretical bases and the mastery of classical art, are essential elements to deal with new themes and new styles resulting from the evolution of human thought.

Certainly it is not possible to define art in terms of postulates, theorems and procedures to try to define a model whose application can lead to the realization of a work of art. Conversely, the means of expression (color and form) are part of the physical world and it was therefore possible to define laws that are worth knowing as they are the tools at the basis of a good painting. The medium are basically two:

• color 

• shape

​

We can give the color different values, from the chemical point of view, which studies its molecules, we assign it an objective value rom the physical point of view we define it based on the decomposition of the white light, while from a physiological point of view we decode it according to our visual perception also assigning it a subjective value as it is capable of provoking different reactions in the observer.

The shape is generally measurable and, as for the color, there are infinite shapes. They too have a subjective value capable of causing different sensations in those who observe them.

We will review the following basic concepts:

• the light 

• the color and the chromatic scale 

• the meaning of color 

• the harmony of colors 

• the shape

​

3.1 The light

​

Every body at any temperature (above absolute zero) emits electromagnetic radiation (Stefan-Boltzamann's law).

Visible light is a small part of all electromagnetic radiation, this range is called the "electromagnetic wave spectrum" (hereafter referred to as the spectrum).

Visible light is emitted by incandescent bodies such as the sun and the light bulb and we perceive it as visible because they emit a quantity of radiation in the frequencies to which our eye is sensitive and therefore able to perceive them. When we observe any object we perceive its color and this happens thanks to the light.

Electromagnetic waves cover a wide range of frequencies and wavelengths and propagate in a straight line from the source with a wave motion in all directions.

Wavelengths range from hundreds of kilometers to infinitely small values in the order of one ten millionth of a meter. 

Their frequencies range from a few KHz (kilohertz) to infinitely small decimal units with twenty-two zeros before the unit. The light propagates at a speed of 300,000 km / sec, i.e. from a generic light source the light takes a second to travel a distance of 300,000 km. Electromagnetic waves are represented by a sinusoidal curve and, on the Cartesian axes, are characterized by three quantities (figures 3.1.1. And figure 3.1.2):

​

• wavelength: it is the distance between the two successive crests or the distance between two consecutive maxima (crest over the distance axis.

• amplitude: it is the distance between the maximum point of the wave crest and the propagation axis (which coincides with the abscissas in the graph).

• frequency: is the number of oscillations of the wave in the unit of time and is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz).

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

figure 3.1.1. - example of long wavelength and low frequency curve

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

​

​

 

 

figure 3.1.2. - example of long wavelength and low frequency curve

​

​

 

By virtue of the infinite differences in their wavelength and frequency characteristics, electromagnetic waves can be classified into:

​

• Radio waves: generally produced by electronic devices, they are used in television and radio transmissions

• Microwaves: as for radio waves, the production of this type of waves takes place by means of electronic equipment and used in addition to the well-known microwave oven, for heating food, in radars and in satellite communications.

• Infrared: infrared rays are produced by the molecules of hot bodies such as people and animals. With particular equipment capable of capturing such rays it is possible to see hot bodies.

• Visible light: are the wavelengths visible by the human eye. They are a very narrow band ranging from violet to red.

• Ultraviolet: they are produced by atoms and molecules subjected to electrical discharges. The sun produces many ultraviolet rays, most of which are filtered by the ionosphere (upper part of the atmosphere) and only a small percentage reaches the earth and offers us a tan.

• X-rays: widely used in medicine for their characteristic of passing through the soft tissues and being absorbed by the bones thus allowing them to be radiographed, or to return a photographic image of the same. However, they produce chemical processes capable of destroying healthy tissues; however, being able to destroy diseased cells more than healthy ones, they are used to treat certain types of cancer.

• Gamma rays: they are extremely energetic and nuclear electromagnetic waves produced by radioactive substances, They are capable of causing serious damage to living beings. They are also present in cosmic radiation and it is for this reason that they are used in astronomical research.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

figure 3.1.3. - Chromatic spectrum

​

 

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

​

 

 

 

Fig. 3.1.4. Frequency and wavelength table of magnetic radiation (nm=nanometer=10 t0 10-9 meters, pm=picometer =10 to 10-12 meters)

​

With reference to the chromatic spectrum indicated in figure 3.1.3 referring to the wavelengths of the visible light, in detail we have:

the violet: from 400nm to 430nm

the blue: from 430nm to 490nm

the green: from 490nm to 560nm

the orange: from 580 to 620nm

the red from: 620nm to 700nm

​

The sunlight, defined as "white light", is actually made up of a mixture of colors that we can see in the rainbow. Newton in 1665-1666 demonstrated its veracity by means of a prism that filtered sunlight decomposing it into the colors of the rainbow.

In particular, Newton wanted to demonstrate that all the colors we see were already present in the "white light" of the sun before its decomposition and that the color of the objects that surround us is linked to the way the surfaces react to light.

The white solar light is composed of radiation of different wavelength, each of which corresponds to a color and the colors appear different to us as the individual rays differently excite the eye (retina, receptors assigned to chromatic perception). The substances and objects that surround us are therefore not colored in themselves, these bodies emit, reflect, absorb electromagnetic wavesof different wavelength and of different intensity that our receptive and sensory system interprets as colors.

The colors we therefore see are the colors that are not absorbed by an object, that is, reflections and propagated.

vengono assorbiti da un oggetto e cioè quelli riflessi e propagati. 

When a body absorbs all the colors of white light the object appears black, when a body reflects all the colors of the spectrum the object appears white. Transparent bodies, such as water and glass, do not reflect and absorb any light radiation or allow themselves to be passed through and this is why they appear transparent to us (total transmission phenomenon).

Opaque bodies absorb some rays and reflect others; the color is due to the reflected rays. For example, if an opaque body absorbs radiation between 400 and 500 nanometers, it will appear yellow-red.

​

Ultimately we can say that the color depends on the different molecular structure of the body as a function of which radiation it absorbs and which radiation it reflects.

​

​

3.2 The color and the chromatic scale

​

In the pictorial language it is necessary a clarification and a distinction between chromatic pigment and color.

By "chromatic pigment" we mean the material and substances that are used in painting, while by "color" we mean the perceptions of the eye when it is stimulated by a light wave with a specific wavelength, therefore regardless of the painting .

​

In the infinite range of possible colors, it is important to distinguish between primary, secondary, ternary and complementary colors.

​

Primary colors: they are the "absolute" colors, that is those which cannot be obtained from any mix of colors. The primary colors are RED (magenta), YELLOW and BLUE (cyan). A primary color, with a good level of purity, absorbs 1/3 of the white light and reflects 2/3 of it.

With reference to the color spectrum (figure 3.1.3), we can say:

• the primary RED absorbs all the more distant waves (shorter and medium waves) and therefore the purple, blue and green,

• the primary YELLOW absorbs the shorter waves and reflects the medium and part of the longer ones,

• the primary BLUE completely absorbs long and medium waves.

​

Secondary colors: obtained by mixing two primary colors in equal parts.

• mixing red and blue, we get PURPLE,

• by mixing red and yellow, we obtain ORANGE

• by mixing yellow and blue, we obtain GREEN

A secondary color absorbs 2/3 of the white light and reflects 1/3 of it because the secondary, being a mixture of two primaries, has a double absorption process.

By mixing two primaries in different proportions we obtain infinite combinations in which the quantitatively greater color will prevail.

The use of these mixes are an essential factor in the context of Abstract Empathy as they release more sensations and emotions than the emotional static nature of the mixing of two primaries in equal parts.

​

Ternary colors: they are obtained by mixing two adjacent colors (see color wheel in figure 3.1.5), or by mixing a primary and a secondary in equal proportions.

​

Then by mixing in equal parts a primary and a ternary we obtain a "quaternary" and by mixing in equal parts a secondary and a ternary we obtain a "quinary".

​

Color circle (or color wheel or color circle)

​

The chromatic circle is fundamental for understanding the combination of colors. Many chromatic circles have been designed starting from Isaac Newton, but the most common one is perhaps also the oldest, it is the twelve color wheel (figure 3.1.5).

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

figure 3.1.5 - The color wheel

​

The twelve colors represented in the wheel are the three primary colors (red, yellow and blue), the three secondary colors obtained by mixing the three primary colors (green, orange and purple) and the six tertiary colors obtained by mixing the primary and secondary colors.

​

Below we give a series of definitions of the pictorial vocabulary very useful in the artistic field.

​

Shade (synonyms: tint, chroma, chromaticity)

​

It is the perceptual quality with which the different parts of the spectrum can be distinguished.The hue is the unmixed pure color or without the addition of white or black pigments and without mixtures of other colors and therefore of maximum saturation (see saturation).

In fact pure color is produced by a single luminous wavelength; when there are color mixtures of different wavelengths, the resulting vibration is complex and the color appears more tarnished.

In practice when we are faced with a color to quickly understand which hue we are talking about the question we must ask ourselves is which of the twelve fundamental hues that make up the spectrum (therefore primary, secondary and tertiary) is the closest.

​

Brightness (synonyms: value, clarity, brilliance)

​

Is the quantity of white or black present in the color. The brightness depends on the degree of light reflected by the pigment: yellow is the brightest as it is the closest color to white, purple is the least bright color as it is closest to the black.

When we speak of brightness we also speak of value in the sense that value refers to the brightness and darkness of a color. For example, if we take a red ball illuminated by a light, the part of the ball exposed directly to the light will be brighter, while the opposite part will obviously be in shadow and therefore darker in value. The value is therefore essentially the relationship between light and dark.

Goethe established a scale of brightness:

WHITE = 10

YELLOW=9

ORANGE=8

MAGENTA = 6

GREEN = 6

CIANO=4

PURPLE = 3

​

Excluding white, from this scale it is deduced that the maximum brightness obtained by their opposition is constituted by the YELLOW-PURPLE (9: 3) pair, followed by the ORANGE-CYAN (8: 4) and MAGENTA-GREEN (6: 6) pair (see complementary colors).

​

Anticipating what will be taken up in the chapter on color harmony, we can affirm that to obtain a harmonious balance between the shades in such a way that no color predominates over the others, we must act on the extension of the color surface in inverse proportion to the brightness according to the following reports:

​

YELLOW=3

ORANGE=4

MAGENTA=6

GREEN=6

CIANO=8

PURPLE=9

​

For example, if we want to balance two YELLOW and PURPLE areas (maximum brightness) we must paint a purple area three times greater than the yellow area, or if we want to balance two ORANGE and CYAN areas, we must paint a double cyan zone of the orange zone.

​

Saturation (synonyms: purity, intensity, fullness)

​

It is the state of purity or intensity of a color (as it comes out of the tube). The highest level of saturation occurs with pure colors. The color as it comes out of the tube lying on a white surface with a convenient thickness is the maximum level of saturation. If we increase the thickness of the color with successive coats it increases the absorption of light radiation and therefore decreases the degree of saturation (the color appears less vibrant and slightly darker).

​

Monochromatic colors

​

A monochromatic color is defined when we are in the presence of only one color in the sense that we must remain on a single shade but within which we take into consideration all its values or the different shades obtained by adding black, white or gray.

​

Complementary colors

​

Two colors are said to be "complementary" when, with reference to the chromatic scale, they are in opposite positions and therefore:

​

• RED and GREEN

• YELLOW and PURPLE

• BLUE and ORANGE

​

If we mix two complementary colors in equal parts, we obtain a color tending to black, as it happens when the three primaries are mixed.

Conversely, if we put two complementary colors close to each other we enhance their chromatic intensity.

​

Neutral (or achromatic) colors

​

They are white, black and gray. From the pictorial point of view, white, black and gray are absolutely to be considered colors; white is even a primary as it cannot be obtained from any mixture and black, vice versa, a secondary.

​

Warm and cold colors

​

First of all, it must be said that both warm and cold colors have little to do with pure colors (that is, the colors not mixed), indeed, as one color deviates to another, the distinction between hot and cold becomes clearer.

Another common consideration for warm / cold colors is that a warm color can appear even warmer if placed near cold colors and vice versa a cold color appears colder if placed near warm colors

  

Warm colors: colors that can be associated with sun and fire. 

Reds, soils, orange and other similar shades are therefore warm. The warm colors give a feeling of approaching the viewer.

Cold colors: colors that can be associated with the moon and water are considered cold colors.Green-blue, pale green, the colors where blue, light blue, blue green, gray are predominantly cold colors.

On the green you have to be careful as it is a bit on the border line between warm and cold colors; green is warmer if yellow is increased in the composition, green tends to cold if more cyan is added.

Unlike warm colors, cold colors seem to move away from the viewer.

​

3.3. The meaning of colors

​

The human eye is attracted to colors, their beauty and their diversity. Color causes emotions, moods, makes something vibrate within us; color is like music, acts within us, has a psychic effect.

Just as classical music tends to calm us down and rock music tends to excite us, the same happens for colors.

​

Let's review the colors, describing the effects and meanings attributed to them:

​

PURPLE (wavelength 380-420 nanometers)

It is the first color of the visible spectrum and is a secondary color. It has a funeral effect, expresses a feeling of sadness, but also of fantasy, royalty, intelligence, sophistication, exaltation, beauty, inspiration, wealth, tension, restlessness, renunciation, unhappiness and discontent. In Christianity it was the color of liturgical vestments and penance.

BLUE (wavelength 470 nanometers)

It is a primary color, it is deep and recalls the idea of infinity and stillness, of dreams and wonders. If the blue goes towards the black it becomes sadder, if it turns towards the blue it becomes indifferent and distant like the sky against the background of a landscape. Express responsibility, reliability and compassion. It is able to relax the individual, reduces pressure and reduces anxiety.

GREEN (wavelength 490-590 nanometers)

It is a secondary color obtained from the mixture of yellow and blue. It is a color that spreads a state of great balance and quiet, it is immobile, it does not express neither joy nor sadness, he does not say or ask for anything. It expresses a sense of justice and hope, it symbolizes nature and freshness. It lowers anxiety and instills a sense of calm, rest, tranquility, love and peace.

YELLOW (wavelength 565-590 nanometers)

It is a primary color, it is warm, dynamic, idealistic, euphoric, radiant, irrational and full of energy. Yellow has an electrifying effect on us and can make us anxious. It is the color of the idealist and intellectual, but also of mental deficiency. It gives rise to a sense of expansion, of movement, from an idea of development, of freedom, light-heartedness, exaggeration, generosity, liberation, will, power, arrogance. If you cold it whit white, yellow becomes absent and sick.

RED (wavelength 630-760 nanometers)

It is a primary color that acts on us in a direct, vital and lively way. It expresses strength, energy, enthusiasm, passion, authority, pride, sensitivity, a symbol of heart and love. 

BROWN (wavelength: it is a different shade of orange).

It comes from the mixture of red with black, blue, red and yellow.

It expresses a feeling of hardness, of little dynamism, it is obtuse, but also reliable and it acts on us in a powerful way spreading a feeling of balance and strength.

ORANGE (wavelength 585-620 nanometers)

It comes from the mixture of yellow and red. It spreads a feeling of strength and security, of social life and entertainment; when you look at it it seems that the color comes towards us. It expresses pleasure, joy, relaxation, relief, enjoyment, positivity, leisure.

GREY

Between white and black, it belongs, as we have already said, to neutral colors. Ambiguous, apathetic, devoid of energy, monotonous, sober, gloomy, sad, doubtful, melancholic, but it is also capable of promoting productivity and creativity, it is elegant and luxurious.

BLACK (wavelength: perceived in the absence of light)

Black absorbs light and does not reflect any rays. It expresses solidarity and formalities, authority of power, of submission.

It is a symbol of death, destruction, horror, sadness, humiliation, renunciation, evil, pain, it is chaos and irrationality. But black is also a symbol of elegance and nobility.

WHITE (wavelength: it is the union of all the colors of the magnetic spectrum)

White has no hue, it is an absolutely versatile color that can be mixed with any other color. Its meaning varies greatly depending on the general atmosphere. It can convey a sense of calm, satisfaction, purity and modesty, but also of violence, evil, death, but also of a great silence full of potential. White also represents honesty, reliability, honesty, luck, sterility, fairness, non-dangerousness.

If we mix a color with white we reduce the psychic power of the color itself.

PURPLE

Mixing of violet and brown, it infuses power, domination, contentment, empowerment.

​

3.4 Color harmony

​

When we are in the figurative field, all the effort is aimed at representing a subject as we see it in nature and we enjoy many tools such as the play of lights,the perspectives, the proportions the light / dark the full and the empty, vice versa the more we move towards abstractionism, the more we reduce ourselves to only two tools:

• the shapes

• the colors

It is therefore intuitive how the harmony of colors becomes essential for the success of the work; without harmony there is a strong risk that our work will become a palette of colored spots.

To create works in which harmony stands out, several suggestions can be adopted which I will list below, but it is right to emphasize that the main and irreplaceable thing remains the intuition and ability of the artist.

It would be absurd to think that I want to codify the use of color, not only do I consider it impossible but I consider it a disgrace that would invalidate art and the difference in ability and genius between one artist and another.

​

That said, here are some suggestions that can help in the search for color harmony.

• Tone contrast: that is, various shades of color are used but with the same saturation and brightness point.

• Contrast of value: when using two or more shapes of the same base color but with different brightness.

• Saturation contrast: obtained by means of the variation of saturation of a pure tone mixed with white, black or complementary color.

• Contrast of quantity: that is, using a form with a large amount of color and a smaller one with another color. 

• Contrast of complementaries: that is, by coupling two complementary colors together.

In all harmonic compositions we can see three types of color:

• dominant

• tonic

• mediation

The "dominant" is the color that has the largest extension and consequently underlines the other colors of the composition.

The "tonic" is the complementary color of the dominant used to insert an "animated" note in the composition.

Of "mediation" is a color that acts as a conciliator and as a transition from the previous two. In the chromatic circle it is usually found near the tonic color.

• Use of warm colors and cold colors and their combinations.

• Use of complementary colors: they have a considerable property in terms of chromatic harmony as previously indicated also with reference to the Goethe scale. Their use must however be managed carefully, in general they work well when you want to emphasize a part of the composition, conversely, repeated use of the same can compromise the general harmony of the work.

• Use of similar colors: they are the colors that are located next to each other in the color wheel and therefore contain each other's color, that is, they have a common color, such as purple, red-violet and red. This coupling creates a good harmony with a sense of serenity and comfort; but be careful not to make the composition monotonous. When making this choice it is useful to "break" with a third color.

• Color triad: it consists of three colors separated by an equal distance in the color wheel (figure 3.4.1). This combination of three does not produce the contrast that complementaries produce but for the purpose of harmony, it still gives an adequate contrast.

​

​

​

​

​

​

​​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

​

​

​

 

 

 

figure 3.4.1 - Triad of colors

​

​

• Split of complementaries: always with reference to the color wheel, the stands of the complementaries (figure 3.4.2), is the combination of a color with the two colors alongside the reference complement. For example green with the colors alongside its complementary red or orange and purple / red. It offers a good variety.

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

​​

 

figure 3.4.2 - split of complementaries

​

 

Double complementary: this is the composition of two copies of complementary, two adjacent colors with their opposites (figure 3.4.4). This scheme is a little complex and often in order not to unbalance the system, one color of the four is chosen as the dominant color over the other three.

Example: green-red, yellow-purple.

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

f

 

figure 3.4.3 - double complementaries

​

​

• Rectangle color combination: it is a four-color scheme in two pairs of complementaries organized in a rectangle (figure 3.4.4.). Again it is good if one is dominant over the others.

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

figure 3.4.4 - combination of rectangle colors

​

​

• Squared color combination: completely similar to the previous one but with the colors evenly spaced in the chromatic scale (figure 3.4.5.). Again it is suggested that one is dominant over the others.

​

​

​

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

figure 3.4.5 - square color combination

 

 

Other aspects that act on the harmony of colors:

​

• Spatial aspects: obtained by playing on some sensationals such as:

- in the colors with maximum saturation the light colors (yellow, orange) seem bigger than the dark ones (blue, purple, violet, green). When a color looks bigger it also looks closer.

- warm colors seem closer than cold ones

- a large shape may appear larger if associated with a small one

- the use of several small shapes can balance a large shape

- an object with a good outline appears heavier than an object with a simple outline

- a small but complex object can balance a larger object​

​

• Balance and proportion: when in a composition you want to attract attention you can use highly saturated colors (high intensity, pure color) compared to less saturated areas or very detailed areas compared to much simpler areas.

• Balance of quantity: we take back what has already been described in the paragraph on brightness or the Goethe scale that combines brightness with the space defined by an area of color.

• Emphasis: emphasis is one of the basic principles of art, it is a very specific area of the composition that first draws the attention of the observer.

• Focal point: it is a bit like the emphasis, it is a precise point of the composition where you want to direct the observer's eye.

• Variety: fundamental principle of art, which suggests an appropriate "variety" in the shapes, colors and placement of the elements in the construction of the composition,such as to arouse interest and pleasure in the observer.

• Unity: another fundamental principle of art, definable as the set of elements of simplicity, repetition, closeness and continuations such as to create a strong overall harmony.

• Movement: an appropriate use of color creates a sense of movement: an example is the use of colors whose value changes suddenly from very high to very low, if vice versa all the values are close to each other there is a feeling of calm.

• Rhythm: an illusion of movement and therefore of rhythm occurs when in the composition we use repeated elements exactly as it happens for music.

 

3.5 La shape

​

I have already had occasion to say how in abstract art and abstract empathy, the only two tools we can count on are color and shape.

We also saw how color can express meaning and how it affects the general harmony of the work. Let's now inspect the shape element.

​

The easiest way to define a shape is to see it from the external point of view, or to observe it as a space or an outlined surface.

Wanting to tell a sensation without resorting to real forms, we must think of abstract elementary forms that have their own internal content and that different shapes combined together can convey meaning and harmony, bearing in mind that on a two-dimensional canvas and with the constraint of "purity" we do not have the third dimension.

When we paint a (figurative) landscape, in addition to the two dimensions of the canvas, we have the "trick" of perspective (third dimension), the dark light, the play of light, the planes and the real dimensions of the objects.

In the abstract all this is not there!

While color is something undefined, the shape has very specific connotations that delimit it.

Shapes and colors reinforce each other;

In the shapes we can categorize the "regular shapes" such as the square, the rectangle, the circle and all the figures thus classified from a geometric point of view, but also all the shapes that do not have a geometric regularity and which are referred to as "irregular shapes ".

​

Abstract Empathy uses all forms, both regular and irregular 

While color is something undefined, the shape has very specific connation that delitti it. Shape and color reniforme each other; for example, if we take a circle and color it yellow, we will feel a sensation of approaching the spectator, if we color it light blue we generate a greater sense of depth and therefore of distance from the observer; bright colors seem to be even more if we place them inside an acute shape (for example a triangle), conversely the deep colors seem to be even more if placed inside a circular shape.

The balance between the forms, their proportions, the type of form cannot be calculated and, as for the color, in the end what matters is the sensitivity, the feeling and the genius of the artist.

​

3.5.1. The meaning of forms

​

As for color, we now try to classify regular shapers and given some definition of their meaning.

• The point: it is the most basic of geometric figures. It has a meaning of beginning or end. It also has the meaning or center that expresses the absolute or the point from which space and time radiate. Symbol of the universal principle designates the position of inner centrality.

• the line: we have two types, the straight line and the curved line. They are in opposition to each other; the straight line expresses a meaning of order, rationality, harmony, control, simplicity,it is inflexible and expressive essential, the curved line is free and sensual and we find it in all forms of nature. In a composition, the combined use of the two lines generates a contrasting situation which, if used well, creates a high harmonic level.

• the circle: it can also be understood as an enlarged point. It has a meaning of perfection, homogeneity, indivisibility, completeness, union, non-destruction. The movement of the circle has no beginning and no end. it is immutable, eternal and perfect. It symbolizes harmony and equality of principles, in fact it does not have an above and an underneath, it has no edges and represents well the perennial cycle of life. The circle has a defined internal part and an indefinite external part.

• the square: it is the symbol of the earth in opposition to the sky symbolized by the circle. It has a meaning of stability, of isolated moment, of anti-dynamism, of arrest, of definition. If the circle is perfect, the square is right, so much so as to be a symbol of justice, thus representing its law. The number four is associated with the square.

• the triangle: it is the symbol of the return to primordial age. The triangle is associated with the number three. It expresses the idea of divinity and the idea of man's asceticism to divinity.

• The pointing up triangle symbolizes fire and the male sex, while the pointing down symbolizes water and the female sex.

 

Irregular forms do not have their own meaning as regular forms can have; however in a composition they have a fundamental value in that they constitute the dynamic, imaginative, musical, movement and absolute freedom part.

​

3.5.2 Balance of forms

​

Abstract empathy makes use of both categories of forms; how and where to use them cannot be coded and it is in the artist's sensitivity, ability and imagination to use them to the fullest.

The composition depends on the variation of the ratios and proportions between the shapes and on the variation of the individual shapes even for minimal differences.

As in an open and complex system (see Systems Theory), relations exist between the forms and the effort is to make the system stable and therefore to intervene as needed on the system - that is, the work - seeking its balance, simplicity and 'harmony.

As repeatedly stressed, there are no procedures, the only way is to empathize with nature, an object, a thought and let the hands guided by the will, inspiration and feeling to draw lines, straight lines, circles and forms.

​​

To complete the conditions that favor the balance of forms, the "golden section law" is described below that is more applicable in the figurative rather than in the abstract, but which is still worth knowing.

​

Golden Section Law

​

The Golden Section is an ancient law discovered by Vitruvius (Roman architect at the time of Augustus) that governs aesthetics. It is a standard of harmony, perfection and beauty for architecture, painting and sculpture; when we have to place shapes in a space, reference is made to this low.

Definition of the low:

​

"in order for a space divided into two unequal parts to be pleasant and aesthetic, it must have the same proportion between the smallest and largest part as between the largest and the whole".

In mathematical terms if we take a long segment "1" and divide it into a major part "x" and a minor part "1-x" by the Golden Law we can say that:

(1-x):x=x:1

Solving the second degree equation we obtain that:

x=0,618

The Golden Section is very important to place the point of maximum interest, for example in a panorama, in one of the four points that are formed by the intersections that are obtained by multiplying the base by 0.618 with the points that are obtained by multiplying the height by 0.618 (figure 3.5.2.1), for example in a panorama, in one of the four points that are formed by the intersections that are obtained by multiplying the base by 0.618 with the points that are obtained by multiplying the height by 0.618 (figure 3.5.2.1).

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

​

 

 

​

 

 

 

figure 3.5.2.1 - Law of the Golden Section

​

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

​

 

​